HISTORY- Form 2 Topic 2

This was the first mode of production to exist in pre colonial African societies and is divided into two namely:

Low level of production:With crude tools like stone and little knowledge, man hardly mastered his surroundings. He managed to get basic needs such as food, clothes and shelter. Due to low level of development in science and technology people produced food for their day to day use; hence there was no surplus of production.

Collective ownership: Members of the community jointly owned the major means of production including land, tools and animals. The clan leader headed the members of the clan. However, communal societies were not stratified as a result all commodities produced were shared equally for there was no exploitation.

Absence of specialisation:People were obliged to do all the jobs including making tools, hunting, looking for foods, preparing shelters and clothes. The division of labour was based on gender and age, men hunted and collected food while women were responsible for cooking, taking care of the young, sick and old people.

Full democracy: All decision making was arrived at by all adult members of the group regardless of their gender.

Generally, people lived together according to blood relations in small groups by tracing their origin from the same ancestor. Each group was separated from the other by large tracts of land.

During primitive communalism all the time man largely depended on nature so as to increase his labour productivity.

Domestication of animal and plants or emergence of Neolithic revolution in the late age of the Stone Age; this was the greatest revolution made so far for the first time by man.

Development of permanent settlement: Even with nomadic pastoralist or shifting cultivation the area of operation became limited as the number of people increased due to the Neolithic revolution. Hence the production increased with the population following this permanent settlement was inevitable.

Advanced production of tools like hand hoes, panga, axe and other iron tools resulted from the Neolithic revolution

Land continued to belong to the community but agriculture became the major economic activity.

African societies were not static, but they underwent transformations, which were influenced by the environment, climate and soil fertility, the growth of population and the increase of productive forces all which paved the way for a new mode of production.

Such factors caused societies’ transitions from communalism to feudalism, by the 19th century some societies were practicing feudalism. However, groups such as the Tindiga of Tanzania, Khoisan of Kalahari maintained their communal mode of production.

Some societies lived in areas with good climate and fertile soils. Such societies included the Mandika and the Yoruba in the forest of savannah regions, Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankore, Toro, Tutsi, Haya, Hutu and Waha of East Africa as well as the Zulu and the Nguni in South Africa.

Reliable rainfall and fertile soils allowed the expansion of agriculture and the cultivation of permanent crops e.g. bananas in Buganda.

The cultivation of permanent crops led to the growth of permanent settlements which ensured surplus production.

The advancement of science and technology led to the discovery of iron. From iron people made strong and sharper tools than stone tools which increased the rate of production.

The growth in population led to an increase in food production and the standard of living. Population increase resulted in shortage of land and caused overcrowding this also led to the rise of highly centralised states that developed standing armies which later carried out constant raids. Shortage of land and its increase in value contribution to the development of productive forces since they were conditioned to produce everything in small areas.

Such factors threatened the communal mode of production and led to feudalism, since land was privately owned by people. This created classes of land owners and those who were landless within the community. Organisation of labour was then dictated by land controllers at the expense of the landless who worked for the land owners in order to be paid. Also, the distribution of products was not equal; as land controllers took the highest shares for themselves.

Furthermore societies underwent a transformation from communalism to feudalism systems due to the fact that some societies become strong and conquered weaker societies.

Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work and to demand compensation

Historically, slavery was institutionally recognised by many societies but in more recent times slavery has been outlawed in most societies continues through the practices of debt bondage, indentured servitude, serfdom, domestic servant kept in captivity, adopted children are sometimes forced to work as slaves as well as child soldiers and forced marriage.

Slavery is a condition in which one human being is owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most rights ordinarily enjoyed by free persons.

There is no consensus on what the slave was or on how the institution of slavery should be defined. Nevertheless, there is general agreement among historians, anthropologist, economists, sociologist and others who study slavery that most of the following characteristics should be present in order to term a person a slave. The slave was a species of property; thus he belonged to someone else.

Was the third mode of production but the second in exploitation of land. Feudalism is derived from the Latin word feudum which means a piece of land; it’s so because this mode of production was largely based on land as a major means of production. According to Marxist feudalism came from the womb of the slavery mode of production because it bases on exploitation of the lower class.

Feudal rent:The feudal lords exploited the peasants through the payment of rent. This was paid in kind and in labour.

Private ownership of productive forces: Thisincluded land, tools, cattle and women who were privately owned by feudal lords

Agriculture became the major economic activity: Following the discovery of iron technology productive forces were improved drastically.

A Prognostic social class:This was based on exploitation of one class i.e. feudal lords of tenants or peasants.

Direct subordination of the lower social class to the upper class of feudal lords.

Division of labour and specialisation: Basedon gender and age

Inheritance:Created as a means to determine one’s position in society according to birth, it determined who became a leader and who a subject.

Improved productive forces:Especially tools applied in agriculture and military warfare, this was brought about by iron technology.

Generally, African kingdoms such as Buganda and some forest states of West Africa, used means of production centered around either land or livestock-especially cattle-peasants could use the land freely but they were required to pay rent.